Updated 09-functions

09-functions.md

@@ -1,17 +1,28 @@
-# Functions
+# Functions #
 
-Functions are reusable pieces of programs. They allow you to give a name to a block of statements, allowing you to run that block using the specified name anywhere in your program and any number of times. This is known as *calling* the function. We have already used many built-in functions such as `len` and `range`.
+Functions are reusable pieces of programs. They allow you to give a
+name to a block of statements, allowing you to run that block using
+the specified name anywhere in your program and any number of
+times. This is known as *calling* the function. We have already used
+many built-in functions such as `len` and `range`.
 
-The function concept is probably *the* most important building block of any non-trivial software (in any programming language), so we will explore various aspects of functions in this chapter.
+The function concept is probably *the* most important building block
+of any non-trivial software (in any programming language), so we will
+explore various aspects of functions in this chapter.
 
-Functions are defined using the `def` keyword. After this keyword comes an *identifier* name for the function, followed by a pair of parentheses which may enclose some names of variables, and by the final colon that ends the line. Next follows the block of statements that are part of this function. An example will show that this is actually very simple:
+Functions are defined using the `def` keyword. After this keyword
+comes an *identifier* name for the function, followed by a pair of
+parentheses which may enclose some names of variables, and by the
+final colon that ends the line. Next follows the block of statements
+that are part of this function. An example will show that this is
+actually very simple:
 
 Example (save as `function1.py`):
 
 ~~~python
 def sayHello():
     print('Hello World!') # block belonging to the function
-# End of function
+# End of function #
 
 sayHello() # call the function
 sayHello() # call the function again
@@ -27,15 +38,28 @@ Hello World!
 
 How It Works:
 
-We define a function called `sayHello` using the syntax as explained above. This function takes no parameters and hence there are no variables declared in the parentheses. Parameters to functions are just input to the function so that we can pass in different values to it and get back corresponding results.
+We define a function called `sayHello` using the syntax as explained
+above. This function takes no parameters and hence there are no
+variables declared in the parentheses. Parameters to functions are
+just input to the function so that we can pass in different values to
+it and get back corresponding results.
 
-Notice that we can call the same function twice which means we do not have to write the same code again.
+Notice that we can call the same function twice which means we do not
+have to write the same code again.
 
-## Function Parameters 
+## Function Parameters ##
 
-A function can take parameters, which are values you supply to the function so that the function can *do* something utilising those values. These parameters are just like variables except that the values of these variables are defined when we call the function and are already assigned values when the function runs.
+A function can take parameters, which are values you supply to the
+function so that the function can *do* something utilising those
+values. These parameters are just like variables except that the
+values of these variables are defined when we call the function and
+are already assigned values when the function runs.
 
-Parameters are specified within the pair of parentheses in the function definition, separated by commas. When we call the function, we supply the values in the same way.  Note the terminology used - the names given in the function definition are called *parameters* whereas the values you supply in the function call are called *arguments*.
+Parameters are specified within the pair of parentheses in the
+function definition, separated by commas. When we call the function,
+we supply the values in the same way.  Note the terminology used - the
+names given in the function definition are called *parameters* whereas
+the values you supply in the function call are called *arguments*.
 
 Example (save as `func_param.py`):
 
@@ -66,13 +90,25 @@ $ python3 func_param.py
 
 How It Works:
 
-Here, we define a function called `printMax` that uses two parameters called `a` and `b`.  We find out the greater number using a simple `if..else` statement and then print the bigger number.
+Here, we define a function called `printMax` that uses two parameters
+called `a` and `b`.  We find out the greater number using a simple
+`if..else` statement and then print the bigger number.
 
-The first time we call the function `printMax`, we directly supply the numbers as arguments. In the second case, we call the function with variables as arguments. `printMax(x, y)` causes the value of argument `x` to be assigned to parameter `a` and the value of argument `y` to be assigned to parameter `b`. The printMax function works the same way in both cases.
+The first time we call the function `printMax`, we directly supply the
+numbers as arguments. In the second case, we call the function with
+variables as arguments. `printMax(x, y)` causes the value of argument
+`x` to be assigned to parameter `a` and the value of argument `y` to
+be assigned to parameter `b`. The printMax function works the same way
+in both cases.
 
-## Local Variables 
+## Local Variables ##
 
-When you declare variables inside a function definition, they are not related in any way to other variables with the same names used outside the function - i.e. variable names are *local* to the function. This is called the *scope* of the variable. All variables have the scope of the block they are declared in starting from the point of definition of the name.
+When you declare variables inside a function definition, they are not
+related in any way to other variables with the same names used outside
+the function - i.e. variable names are *local* to the function. This
+is called the *scope* of the variable. All variables have the scope of
+the block they are declared in starting from the point of definition
+of the name.
 
 Example (save as `func_local.py`):
 
@@ -99,17 +135,34 @@ x is still 50
 
 How It Works:
 
-The first time that we print the *value* of the name *x* with the first line in the function's body, Python uses the value of the parameter declared in the main block, above the function definition.
+The first time that we print the *value* of the name *x* with the
+first line in the function's body, Python uses the value of the
+parameter declared in the main block, above the function definition.
 
-Next, we assign the value `2` to `x`. The name `x` is local to our function.  So, when we change the value of `x` in the function, the `x` defined in the main block remains unaffected.
+Next, we assign the value `2` to `x`. The name `x` is local to our
+function.  So, when we change the value of `x` in the function, the
+`x` defined in the main block remains unaffected.
 
-With the last `print` function call, we display the value of `x` as defined in the main block, thereby confirming that it is actually unaffected by the local assignment within the previously called function.
+With the last `print` function call, we display the value of `x` as
+defined in the main block, thereby confirming that it is actually
+unaffected by the local assignment within the previously called
+function.
 
-## Using The global Statement
+## Using The global Statement ##
 
-If you want to assign a value to a name defined at the top level of the program (i.e. not inside any kind of scope such as functions or classes), then you have to tell Python that the name is not local, but it is *global*. We do this using the `global` statement. It is impossible to assign a value to a variable defined outside a function without the `global` statement.
+If you want to assign a value to a name defined at the top level of
+the program (i.e. not inside any kind of scope such as functions or
+classes), then you have to tell Python that the name is not local, but
+it is *global*. We do this using the `global` statement. It is
+impossible to assign a value to a variable defined outside a function
+without the `global` statement.
 
-You can use the values of such variables defined outside the function (assuming there is no variable with the same name within the function). However, this is not encouraged and should be avoided since it becomes unclear to the reader of the program as to where that variable's definition is. Using the `global` statement makes it amply clear that the variable is defined in an outermost block.
+You can use the values of such variables defined outside the function
+(assuming there is no variable with the same name within the
+function). However, this is not encouraged and should be avoided since
+it becomes unclear to the reader of the program as to where that
+variable's definition is. Using the `global` statement makes it amply
+clear that the variable is defined in an outermost block.
 
 Example (save as `func_global.py`):
 
@@ -138,15 +191,26 @@ Value of x is 2
 
 How It Works:
 
-The `global` statement is used to declare that `x` is a global variable - hence, when we assign a value to `x` inside the function, that change is reflected when we use the value of `x` in the main block.
+The `global` statement is used to declare that `x` is a global
+variable - hence, when we assign a value to `x` inside the function,
+that change is reflected when we use the value of `x` in the main
+block.
 
-You can specify more than one global variable using the same `global` statement e.g. `global x, y, z`.
+You can specify more than one global variable using the same `global`
+statement e.g. `global x, y, z`.
 
-## Default Argument Values 
+## Default Argument Values ##
 
-For some functions, you may want to make some parameters *optional* and use default values in case the user does not want to provide values for them. This is done with the help of default argument values. You can specify default argument values for parameters by appending to the parameter name in the function definition the assignment operator (`=`) followed by the default value.
+For some functions, you may want to make some parameters *optional*
+and use default values in case the user does not want to provide
+values for them. This is done with the help of default argument
+values. You can specify default argument values for parameters by
+appending to the parameter name in the function definition the
+assignment operator (`=`) followed by the default value.
 
-Note that the default argument value should be a constant. More precisely, the default argument value should be immutable - this is explained in detail in later chapters. For now, just remember this.
+Note that the default argument value should be a constant. More
+precisely, the default argument value should be immutable - this is
+explained in detail in later chapters. For now, just remember this.
 
 Example (save as `func_default.py`):
 
@@ -168,21 +232,39 @@ WorldWorldWorldWorldWorld
 
 How It Works:
 
-The function named `say` is used to print a string as many times as specified. If we don't supply a value, then by default, the string is printed just once. We achieve this by specifying a default argument value of `1` to the parameter `times`.
+The function named `say` is used to print a string as many times as
+specified. If we don't supply a value, then by default, the string is
+printed just once. We achieve this by specifying a default argument
+value of `1` to the parameter `times`.
 
-In the first usage of `say`, we supply only the string and it prints the string once. In the second usage of `say`, we supply both the string and an argument `5` stating that we want to *say* the string message 5 times.
+In the first usage of `say`, we supply only the string and it prints
+the string once. In the second usage of `say`, we supply both the
+string and an argument `5` stating that we want to *say* the string
+message 5 times.
 
 Important
 
-:   Only those parameters which are at the end of the parameter list can be given default argument values i.e. you cannot have a parameter with a default argument value preceding a parameter without a default argument value in the function's parameter list.
+:   Only those parameters which are at the end of the parameter list can
+    be given default argument values i.e. you cannot have a parameter with
+    a default argument value preceding a parameter without a default
+    argument value in the function's parameter list.
 
-    This is because the values are assigned to the parameters by position. For example,`def func(a, b=5)` is valid, but `def func(a=5, b)` is *not valid*.
+    This is because the values are assigned to the parameters by
+    position. For example,`def func(a, b=5)` is valid, but `def
+    func(a=5, b)` is *not valid*.
 
-## Keyword Arguments 
+## Keyword Arguments ##
 
-If you have some functions with many parameters and you want to specify only some of them, then you can give values for such parameters by naming them - this is called *keyword arguments* - we use the name (keyword) instead of the position (which we have been using all along) to specify the arguments to the function.
+If you have some functions with many parameters and you want to
+specify only some of them, then you can give values for such
+parameters by naming them - this is called *keyword arguments* - we
+use the name (keyword) instead of the position (which we have been
+using all along) to specify the arguments to the function.
 
-There are two *advantages* - one, using the function is easier since we do not need to worry about the order of the arguments. Two, we can give values to only those parameters to which we want to, provided that the other parameters have default argument values.
+There are two *advantages* - one, using the function is easier since
+we do not need to worry about the order of the arguments. Two, we can
+give values to only those parameters to which we want to, provided
+that the other parameters have default argument values.
 
 Example (save as `func_key.py`):
 
@@ -206,17 +288,28 @@ a is 100 and b is 5 and c is 50
 
 How It Works:
 
-The function named `func` has one parameter without a default argument value, followed by two parameters with default argument values.
+The function named `func` has one parameter without a default argument
+value, followed by two parameters with default argument values.
 
-In the first usage, `func(3, 7)`, the parameter `a` gets the value `3`, the parameter `b` gets the value `7` and `c` gets the default value of `10`.
+In the first usage, `func(3, 7)`, the parameter `a` gets the value
+`3`, the parameter `b` gets the value `7` and `c` gets the default
+value of `10`.
 
-In the second usage `func(25, c=24)`, the variable `a` gets the value of 25 due to the position of the argument. Then, the parameter `c` gets the value of `24` due to naming i.e. keyword arguments. The variable `b` gets the default value of `5`.
+In the second usage `func(25, c=24)`, the variable `a` gets the value
+of 25 due to the position of the argument. Then, the parameter `c`
+gets the value of `24` due to naming i.e. keyword arguments. The
+variable `b` gets the default value of `5`.
 
-In the third usage `func(c=50, a=100)`, we use keyword arguments for all specified values. Notice that we are specifying the value for parameter `c` before that for `a` even though `a` is defined before `c` in the function definition.
+In the third usage `func(c=50, a=100)`, we use keyword arguments for
+all specified values. Notice that we are specifying the value for
+parameter `c` before that for `a` even though `a` is defined before
+`c` in the function definition.
 
-## VarArgs parameters
+## VarArgs parameters ##
 
-Sometimes you might want to define a function that can take *any* number of parameters, this can be achieved by using the stars (save as `total.py`):
+Sometimes you might want to define a function that can take *any*
+number of parameters, this can be achieved by using the stars (save as
+`total.py`):
 
 ~~~python
 def total(initial=5, *numbers, **keywords):
@@ -239,15 +332,22 @@ $ python3 total.py
 
 How It Works:
 
-When we declare a starred parameter such as `*param`, then all the positional arguments from that point till the end are collected as a tuple called 'param'.
+When we declare a starred parameter such as `*param`, then all the
+positional arguments from that point till the end are collected as a
+tuple called 'param'.
 
-Similarly, when we declare a double-starred parameter such as `**param`, then all the keyword arguments from that point till the end are collected as a dictionary called 'param'.
+Similarly, when we declare a double-starred parameter such as
+`**param`, then all the keyword arguments from that point till the end
+are collected as a dictionary called 'param'.
 
-We will explore tuples and dictionaries in a [later chapter](#data-structures).
+We will explore tuples and dictionaries in a
+[later chapter](#data-structures).
 
-## Keyword-only Parameters 
+## Keyword-only Parameters ##
 
-If we want to specify certain keyword parameters to be available as keyword-only and *not* as positional arguments, they can be declared after a starred parameter (save as `keyword_only.py`):
+If we want to specify certain keyword parameters to be available as
+keyword-only and *not* as positional arguments, they can be declared
+after a starred parameter (save as `keyword_only.py`):
 
 ~~~python
 def total(initial=5, *numbers, extra_number):
@@ -259,7 +359,7 @@ def total(initial=5, *numbers, extra_number):
 
 total(10, 1, 2, 3, extra_number=50)
 total(10, 1, 2, 3)
-# Raises error because we have not supplied a default argument value for 'extra_number'
+# Raises error because we have not supplied a default argument value for 'extra_number' #
 ~~~
 
 Output:
@@ -275,15 +375,23 @@ TypeError: total() needs keyword-only argument extra_number
 
 How It Works:
 
-Declaring parameters after a starred parameter results in keyword-only arguments. If these arguments are not supplied a default value, then calls to the function will raise an error if the keyword argument is not supplied, as seen above.
+Declaring parameters after a starred parameter results in keyword-only
+arguments. If these arguments are not supplied a default value, then
+calls to the function will raise an error if the keyword argument is
+not supplied, as seen above.
 
-Notice the use of `+=` which is a shortcut operator, so instead of saying `x = x + y`, you can say `x += y`.
+Notice the use of `+=` which is a shortcut operator, so instead of
+saying `x = x + y`, you can say `x += y`.
 
-If you want to have keyword-only arguments but have no need for a starred parameter, then simply use an empty star without using any name such as `def total(initial=5, *, extra_number)`.
+If you want to have keyword-only arguments but have no need for a
+starred parameter, then simply use an empty star without using any
+name such as `def total(initial=5, *, extra_number)`.
 
-## The return Statement 
+## The return Statement ##
 
-The `return` statement is used to *return* from a function i.e. break out of the function. We can optionally *return a value* from the function as well.
+The `return` statement is used to *return* from a function i.e. break
+out of the function. We can optionally *return a value* from the
+function as well.
 
 Example (save as `func_return.py`):
 
@@ -308,26 +416,42 @@ $ python3 func_return.py
 
 How It Works:
 
-The `maximum` function returns the maximum of the parameters, in this case the numbers supplied to the function. It uses a simple `if..else` statement to find the greater value and then *returns* that value.
+The `maximum` function returns the maximum of the parameters, in this
+case the numbers supplied to the function. It uses a simple `if..else`
+statement to find the greater value and then *returns* that value.
 
-Note that a `return` statement without a value is equivalent to `return None`. `None` is a special type in Python that represents nothingness. For example, it is used to indicate that a variable has no value if it has a value of `None`.
+Note that a `return` statement without a value is equivalent to
+`return None`. `None` is a special type in Python that represents
+nothingness. For example, it is used to indicate that a variable has
+no value if it has a value of `None`.
 
-Every function implicitly contains a `return None` statement at the end unless you have written your own `return` statement. You can see this by running `print(someFunction())` where the function `someFunction` does not use the `return` statement such as:
+Every function implicitly contains a `return None` statement at the
+end unless you have written your own `return` statement. You can see
+this by running `print(someFunction())` where the function
+`someFunction` does not use the `return` statement such as:
 
 ~~~python
 def someFunction():
     pass
 ~~~
 
-The `pass` statement is used in Python to indicate an empty block of statements.
+The `pass` statement is used in Python to indicate an empty block of
+statements.
 
 Note
 
-:   There is a built-in function called `max` that already implements the 'find maximum' functionality, so use this built-in function whenever possible.
+:   There is a built-in function called `max` that already implements
+    the 'find maximum' functionality, so use this built-in function
+    whenever possible.
 
-## DocStrings 
+## DocStrings ##
 
-Python has a nifty feature called *documentation strings*, usually referred to by its shorter name *docstrings*. DocStrings are an important tool that you should make use of since it helps to document the program better and makes it easier to understand. Amazingly, we can even get the docstring back from, say a function, when the program is actually running!
+Python has a nifty feature called *documentation strings*, usually
+referred to by its shorter name *docstrings*. DocStrings are an
+important tool that you should make use of since it helps to document
+the program better and makes it easier to understand. Amazingly, we
+can even get the docstring back from, say a function, when the program
+is actually running!
 
 Example (save as `func_doc.py`):
 
@@ -360,18 +484,41 @@ Prints the maximum of two numbers.
 
 How It Works:
 
-A string on the first logical line of a function is the *docstring* for that function. Note that DocStrings also apply to [Modules](#modules) and [classes](#object-oriented-programming) which we will learn about in the respective chapters.
-
-The convention followed for a docstring is a multi-line string where the first line starts with a capital letter and ends with a dot. Then the second line is blank followed by any detailed explanation starting from the third line. You are *strongly advised* to follow this convention for all your docstrings for all your non-trivial functions.
-
-We can access the docstring of the `printMax` function using the `__doc__` (notice the *double underscores*) attribute (name belonging to) of the function. Just remember that Python treats *everything* as an object and this includes functions. We'll learn more about objects in the chapter on [classes](#object-oriented-programming).
-
-If you have used `help()` in Python, then you have already seen the usage of docstrings! What it does is just fetch the `__doc__` attribute of that function and displays it in a neat manner for you. You can try it out on the function above - just include `help(printMax)` in your program. Remember to press the `q` key to exit `help`.
-
-Automated tools can retrieve the documentation from your program in this manner. Therefore, I *strongly recommend* that you use docstrings for any non-trivial function that you write. The `pydoc` command that comes with your Python distribution works similarly to `help()` using docstrings.
-
-## Summary 
-
-We have seen so many aspects of functions but note that we still haven't covered all aspects of them. However, we have already covered most of what you'll use regarding Python functions on an everyday basis.
+A string on the first logical line of a function is the *docstring*
+for that function. Note that DocStrings also apply to
+[Modules](#modules) and [classes](#object-oriented-programming) which
+we will learn about in the respective chapters.
+
+The convention followed for a docstring is a multi-line string where
+the first line starts with a capital letter and ends with a dot. Then
+the second line is blank followed by any detailed explanation starting
+from the third line. You are *strongly advised* to follow this
+convention for all your docstrings for all your non-trivial functions.
+
+We can access the docstring of the `printMax` function using the
+`__doc__` (notice the *double underscores*) attribute (name belonging
+to) of the function. Just remember that Python treats *everything* as
+an object and this includes functions. We'll learn more about objects
+in the chapter on [classes](#object-oriented-programming).
+
+If you have used `help()` in Python, then you have already seen the
+usage of docstrings! What it does is just fetch the `__doc__`
+attribute of that function and displays it in a neat manner for
+you. You can try it out on the function above - just include
+`help(printMax)` in your program. Remember to press the `q` key to
+exit `help`.
+
+Automated tools can retrieve the documentation from your program in
+this manner. Therefore, I *strongly recommend* that you use docstrings
+for any non-trivial function that you write. The `pydoc` command that
+comes with your Python distribution works similarly to `help()` using
+docstrings.
+
+## Summary ##
+
+We have seen so many aspects of functions but note that we still
+haven't covered all aspects of them. However, we have already covered
+most of what you'll use regarding Python functions on an everyday
+basis.
 
 Next, we will see how to use as well as create Python modules.